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 29.01.2023

Who were
the people
pushing for
this
amendment
?
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Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), led by Lucy Stone. The NWSA's main effort was lobbying Congress for a women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Explanation:

During the Reconstruction era, women's rights leaders advocated for the inclusion of universal suffrage as a civil right in the Reconstruction Amendments. Some unsuccessfully argued that the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited denying voting rights "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Implied suffrage for women. Despite their efforts, these amendments did not enfranchise women. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment explicitly discriminated between men and women by only penalizing states which deprived adult male citizens of the vote.

The NWSA attempted several unsuccessful court challenges in the mid-1870s. Their legal argument, known as the "New Departure" strategy, contended that the Fourteenth Amendment (granting universal citizenship) and Fifteenth Amendment (granting the vote irrespective of race) together guaranteed voting rights to women. The U.S. Supreme Court rejected this argument. In Bradwell v. Illinois the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Supreme Court of Illinois's refusal to grant Myra Bradwell a license to practice law was not a violation of the U.S. Constitution and refused to extend federal authority in support of women's citizenship rights. In Minor v. Happersett the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment did not provide voting rights to U.S. citizens; it only guaranteed additional protection of privileges to citizens who already had them. If a state constitution limited suffrage to male citizens of the United States, then women in that state did not have voting rights. After U.S. Supreme Court decisions between 1873 and 1875 denied voting rights to women in connection with the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, suffrage groups shifted their efforts to advocate for a new constitutional amendment.

Continued settlement of the western frontier, along with the establishment of territorial constitutions, allowed the women's suffrage issue to be raised as the western territories progressed toward statehood. Through the activism of suffrage organizations and independent political parties, women's suffrage was included in the constitutions of Wyoming Territory and Utah Territory in 1870. Women's suffrage in Utah was revoked in 1887 when Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act in 1887 that also prohibited polygamy; it was not restored in Utah until it achieved statehood in 1896.

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Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), led by Lucy Stone. The NWSA's main effort was lobbying Congress for a women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Explanation:

During the Reconstruction era, women's rights leaders advocated for the inclusion of universal suffrage as a civil right in the Reconstruction Amendments. Some unsuccessfully argued that the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited denying voting rights "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Implied suffrage for women. Despite their efforts, these amendments did not enfranchise women. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment explicitly discriminated between men and women by only penalizing states which deprived adult male citizens of the vote.

The NWSA attempted several unsuccessful court challenges in the mid-1870s. Their legal argument, known as the "New Departure" strategy, contended that the Fourteenth Amendment (granting universal citizenship) and Fifteenth Amendment (granting the vote irrespective of race) together guaranteed voting rights to women. The U.S. Supreme Court rejected this argument. In Bradwell v. Illinois the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Supreme Court of Illinois's refusal to grant Myra Bradwell a license to practice law was not a violation of the U.S. Constitution and refused to extend federal authority in support of women's citizenship rights. In Minor v. Happersett the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment did not provide voting rights to U.S. citizens; it only guaranteed additional protection of privileges to citizens who already had them. If a state constitution limited suffrage to male citizens of the United States, then women in that state did not have voting rights. After U.S. Supreme Court decisions between 1873 and 1875 denied voting rights to women in connection with the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, suffrage groups shifted their efforts to advocate for a new constitutional amendment.

Continued settlement of the western frontier, along with the establishment of territorial constitutions, allowed the women's suffrage issue to be raised as the western territories progressed toward statehood. Through the activism of suffrage organizations and independent political parties, women's suffrage was included in the constitutions of Wyoming Territory and Utah Territory in 1870. Women's suffrage in Utah was revoked in 1887 when Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act in 1887 that also prohibited polygamy; it was not restored in Utah until it achieved statehood in 1896.

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Based on the information provided in the reading, the decline in clove production in Zanzibar during the 1860s can be attributed to British anti-slavery efforts and the ban on the slave trade to Arabia.

According to F. Cooper in "Traders and Planters: the development of the clove cultivation in Zanzibar," the British antislavery efforts and ban on the slave trade to Arabia had a significant impact on the clove industry. Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, were prevented from owning slaves due to their status as British subjects. As a result, about 8,000 slaves were confiscated. This restriction on slave ownership and the decreased availability of labor affected the plantation system and clove production.

Furthermore, the British restrictions also limited the market for clove exports. Zanzibar mainly sold spices to India, and it was difficult to make inroads into the wider Indian market. This placed a real limit on the growth of the clove industry. As a result, the stagnation and decline of clove planting and production occurred from the 1860s onwards.

In summary, the decline in clove production in Zanzibar during the 1860s can be attributed to the British anti-slavery efforts and the ban on the slave trade to Arabia, which restricted the availability of slave labor and limited the market for clove exports.

Regarding the article by Rockel on porter slaves, the evidence used includes travelers' accounts and biographies. The article focuses on the experiences and actions of slave porters, known as Waungwana, who were able to navigate their slavery and negotiate their freedom. Rockel analyzes their ability to transcend the boundaries of slavery, use mobility to negotiate terms, and build extensive networks. This analysis is supported by the evidence obtained from travelers' accounts and biographies of these porter slaves.
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Based on the reading provided, F. Cooper states that one important reason for the decline in clove production in Zanzibar in the 1860s was the British anti-slavery efforts and the ban on the slave trade to Arabia. This ban affected the availability of labor for clove plantations, as Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, became reluctant to provide capital for land or slaves. Additionally, Indians who were British subjects were prevented from owning slaves, leading to the confiscation of around 8,000 slaves.

According to Rockel, the number of porters, known as Waungwana, started to increase in the mid-1800s (from around the 1800s to the 1880s) due to the demand for their services and their ability to negotiate their freedom within the constraints of slavery. These porters were skilled and mobile workers who were part of the urban and Muslim culture in East Africa. They played a crucial role in trade and transnational connections, and their entrepreneurial spirit allowed them to accumulate wealth, own slaves, and engage in trade on their own account.
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According to the reading "Traders and Planters: the development of the clove cultivation in Zanzibar" by F. Cooper, one important reason for the decline in clove production in the 1860s was the British antislavery efforts and ban on the slave trade to Arabia. The impact of this ban was felt when Indians, who were British subjects, were prevented from owning slaves. As a result, about 8,000 slaves were confiscated, and Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, became reluctant to provide capital for land or slaves.

The porter slaves mentioned in the reading were referred to as "Waungwana." These were slaves who worked as professional porters on the coast of East Africa. They were part of an elite group of workers, regarded as skilled and assimilated into Swahili culture. Unlike other porters, such as the Nyamwezi, who were free waged workers and had their own distinct culture, the Waungwana were slaves hired by their owners and received wages. They were mobile and needed to travel long distances, often armed and sometimes allowed to trade on their own account and accumulate wealth, including owning slaves and wives. They had a unique relationship with their owners, who may not have cared much about their well-being as long as they received payment for their labor.
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Based on the information provided in the reading, F. Cooper identifies one important reason for the decline in clove production in the 1860s. According to Cooper, the decline in clove production was primarily due to the British antislavery efforts and the ban on the slave trade to Arabia. This ban, which came into effect from the 1860s, had a significant impact on the clove industry since Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, were prevented from owning slaves. As a result, these Indian merchants became reluctant to provide capital for land or slaves, leading to a slowdown in clove planting and production.

Regarding the culture adopted by porter slaves, the reading does not explicitly mention the specific culture they assimilated into. However, it states that the porters, known as Waungwana, were mostly from different places in Africa but assimilated into Swahili culture. They were urban, Muslim, and regarded as skilled workers. The reading also highlights their distinctiveness in terms of their mobility, ability to negotiate terms of their slavery, and participation in long-distance trading.
StudenGPT
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Based on the reading materials provided, F. Cooper outlines one important reason for the decline in clove production in the 1860s – the British antislavery efforts and ban on the slave trade to Arabia. This ban affected the availability of labor, as Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, were prevented from owning slaves. As a result, they became reluctant to provide capital for land or slaves, leading to a decline in clove planting and production.

Regarding the second question about the slaves that Rockel compares porter slaves to, it is mentioned that porter slaves, known as Waungwana, were able to transcend the boundaries of being slaves. They were skilled professional porters used on the East African coast and were part of an elite group of workers. Rockel compares them to sailors and slave soldiers, as they were mobile and needed to travel long distances and had powerful masters. They were also entrepreneurial, accumulating their own wealth through slave labor, ivory, and trade on their own account.
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According to F. Cooper's reading, one important reason for the decline in clove production in Zanzibar in the 1860s was the British anti-slavery efforts and the ban on the slave trade to Arabia. This had an impact on the availability of labor for the plantations. Indian merchants, who were the principal financiers of Zanzibarian clove production, were prevented from owning slaves, and about 8000 slaves were confiscated. As a result, Indian merchants became reluctant to provide capital for land or slaves. This restriction on slave ownership and the reduction in financial support had a negative effect on clove planting and production, contributing to the decline of the industry.
English
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It was very low inside the house, and so dim, with the closed blinds, that they could scarcely see one another;

Her father standing decorously apart with his hat on his forearm, as at funerals; a woman rested in a deep arm-chair, and the woman who had let the strangers in stood behind the chair.

Editha, by William Dean Howells, is an antiwar story published in 1905. Its characters are people who greatly value custom and ritual, even when it is objectively inconvenient or awkward for them to do so.

The two chosen lines exemplify that character trait. In the first sentence, the house has the blinds closed, as was common for houses where the family had recently experienced a loss or a tragedy. This rule is followed, even though it meant that the characters were barely able to see each other.

The second sentence has a similar example, as Edith's father stands at a distance and with his hat in his hands. We are told this is the way it is done at funerals, which is consistent with the previous sentence and with the character's personality traits.

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